Coaching is evolving from an art form to a science. Coaching is between an art and science. Coaching is multi-disciplinary. The roots of coaching as a profession can be traced back to sports psychology and counseling. While the approach and philosophy is akin to sports psychology, many of the critical coaching techniques have evolved from the field of counseling. Coaches also use some of the teaching and facilitation skills as well as some of the basic consulting processes in their coaching engagements.

Adult and Self-directed learning

The following principles of adult learning are relevant in the context of Executive Coaching.

•  Adult learners should know why something is important to learn before undertaking to learn it.
  
• They need to be responsible for their own decisions and be treated as capable of self-direction.
  
• Learning is possible only when they overcome their inhibitions and limiting beliefs.
  
• The learning should be related to the learners' experiences.
  
• Adults are motivated to learn when they feel they can apply the new learning in their life situations.
  
• Adults develop the ability to take charge of one's own learning.
  
• People, who take initiative in learning, learn better than people waiting to be taught.
  
• Proactive learners enter into learning with greater motivation than reactive learners.
  
• Self-direction is the ability to gain access to, and choose from, a full range of available learning resources.

Counseling Interventions

Coaching processes draw heavily on various kinds of counseling interventions. Some are briefly described.

Psychoanalytic

This was the earliest school of thought and the psycho analytic theory provides a fruitful source of concepts concerning human personality. Sigmund Freud's instinct theory throws light on the biological basis of psychological functioning. He looks upon the individual as a biological entity craving for the gratification of instinctual urges.

His ideas on bi-polarity of human nature, deserves special mention, wherein there is an underlying love-hate relationship (ambivalence), in which positive feelings are accompanied by negative feelings. Unconscious functioning was first described by Sigmund Freud. This involves analyzing the root causes of behavior and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious mind's relation to it.

Sigmund Freud, was the first person to develop the concept of defense mechanisms. His ideas on defense mechanisms provide a valuable insight into the ways in which people sustain self-defeating behavior. Defense mechanisms are our way of distancing ourselves from a full awareness of unpleasant thoughts, feelings and desires.

Many theories and therapies were evolved from the original Freudian psychoanalysis which utilizes free-association, dreams, transference, and other strategies to help the clients know the function of their own minds. Traditional analysts have their clients lie on a couch and they take notes and interpret the client's thoughts, etc., Usually the duration of therapy is lengthy; however, many modern therapists use psychoanalytic techniques combined with short term therapies.

Cognitive

Cognitive psychology owes its existence to Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis. Cognitive psychology focuses on the way we think and feel in the present. Cognitive therapy seeks to change unhealthy behavior by changing the way we think about events.

Ellis in his Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) elucidates strongly that thoughts cause emotions. Cognitive behavioral approaches emphasize that how we react to events is largely determined by our views of them and not by the events themselves. By examining and re-evaluating some of our less helpful views, we can develop and try out alternative viewpoints and behaviors that may be more effective in managing problems.

Cognitive therapy seeks to identify and change "distorted" or "unrealistic" ways of thinking that would influence emotion and behavior. However, the 1970's saw a general cognitive revolution in psychology. Behavioral modification techniques and cognitive therapy techniques became joined together, giving rise to cognitive behavior therapy. The term is sometimes employed interchangeably with cognitive therapy, since cognitive therapy has always included some behavioral components. But, advocates of Beck's approach seek to maintain and establish its integrity as a distinct, clearly-standardized, kind of cognitive behavioral therapy.

Behaviorism

Behaviorist approach lays emphasis on the over arching role of environmental contingencies in influencing the acquisition and perpetuation of behavior. The behavioral model offers a greater degree of specificity in analyzing observable human behavior. Behavior Modification experts believe that behavior results from the interaction of heredity and environment. They are usually concerned with observable behavior. They stress the following tenets.

• Most, if not all, human behavior is learnt. Hence it is changeable or modifiable.
  
• Changes in the environment can alter behavior.
  
• Social learning principles such as modeling, reinforcement, are of value in effecting behavioral changes.
  
• The coaching effectiveness can be assessed in terms of actual outcomes in behavioral change.

Therefore, the coach and the coachee, work together, to identify and modify the behaviors that have been hampering the coachee's effectiveness.

Humanistic Approach

This was propounded by Carl Rogers in the 1940's. The basic premise for this approach is that we are all in the process of "becoming" and we are all moving towards self-actualization. This is also called as client centered / person centered approach. Here, the client is always encouraged to rely on himself as the term client centered approach imply.

This relationship is one in which the counselor seeks to bring about a better appreciation and clearer expression of client's inner resources. Thus the helping relationship, is ultimately intended to facilitate the growth of the client and aimed at improving the functioning of the client or accelerating his / her psychological maturity.

Rogers believed that each of us has the innate ability to reach our full potential. As infants we are born with potential, but because of early experiences, we may lose our connection to it.

The therapist is to provide the conditions necessary for the client's growth through genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding.

Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt is a German word meaning form, shape, pattern and configuration. Gestalt therapy was first employed by Fritz Perls et.al. The therapy did not become well-known until the late 1960's.

Gestalt therapy helps a person discover, explore and experience his or her own shape, pattern and wholeness. Analysis may be a part of the process, but the aim of Gestalt is the integration of all disparate parts. In this way people can let themselves become totally what they already are and what they potentially can become. The objective of Gestalt therapy is to enable him or her to become fully and creatively alive.

Gestalt therapy focuses more on process (what is happening) than content (what is being discussed).The emphasis is on what is being done, thought and felt at the moment, rather than on what was, might be, could be or should be.

Gestalt therapy is a method of awareness, by which, perceiving, feeling and acting are understood to be separate from interpreting, explaining and judging using old attitudes. By becoming aware of and transforming their process they develop self-acceptance and the ability to experience more in the "now" without so much interference from baggage of the past.

Sports Psychology*

Some of the basic principles of coaching derive from sports psychology, such as performing to our best, setting and reaching our goals and becoming a successful team player.

Sport psychology involves preparing the mind of an athlete or sports person, just as it thoroughly prepares one's body.

The approach of sports psychology is in harmony with the overall goals of coaching which include:

• Developing and encouraging the individual's personal best.
  
• Keeping the individual forward and focused in terms of increased awareness about new opportunities for growth and development.
  
• Working through any obstacles to change and overcoming self-limiting beliefs.
  
• Managing a balance between personal and professional life.

Sports psychology emphasizes aspects of human behavior that are critical to the self-development that defines coaching.

Sports psychology recognizes the importance of self-awareness, both on the part of the athlete and the coach.

Developing and maintaining vision, challenging self-limiting beliefs examining values that negatively affect the performance, coping with pressure and stress, and maintaining focus are other areas common to sports psychology and coaching.